Quotations From Scriptures (continued from April 2004 issue):
Introduction
Acharya Umaswati's TATTVAARTH SUTRA(2) presents a systematic and comprehensive account of the principles of Jainism. The first chapter of TATTVAARTH SUTRA, presented in the previous issues, describes rational perception and rational knowledge, and aspects of reality.
The second chapter of TATTVAARTH SUTRA deals with soul, the first and basic aspect of reality. In the last issue, the characteristic states of soul were discussed. This segment deals with the defining characteristic of soul and classification of souls.
Chapter 2 (continued)
Defining characteristic of soul:
UPAYOGO LAKSHANAM |2-8|
The defining characteristic of soul is consciousness (UPAYOGA) - cognitive operation or capability to know and perceive.
Soul is one of the six entities in the universe. There are innumerable independent souls. The defining characteristic of soul is consciousness; no other entity of the universe possesses consciousness. No other entity has the capability to know and perceive. Other intrinsic attributes of soul such as colorless, odorless and immaterial (ethereal) are found in other entities like space and time as well. Thus they are not defining characteristics of soul.
On account of consciousness, a soul acquires knowledge and perception. Therefore, it is animate (living). All other entities of the universe, such as matter, space and time, do not have the ability to obtain knowledge or perception. Thus they are inanimate.
Classification of consciousness:
SA DWIVIDHOASHTACHATURBHEDAH |2-9|
Consciousness (cognitive operation) is of two types: knowledge-related (JNAANOPAYOGA) and perception-related (DARSHANOPAYOGA). The former is of eight subtypes while the latter is of four subtypes.
Knowledge-related cognition is also called determinate or objective cognition (SAAKAAROPAYOGA or SAVIKALPABODH), dealing with the details of objects. Perception-related cognition is also called indeterminate cognition (ANAAKAAROPAYOGA or NIRVIKALPABODH) because it is limited to generic form and does not deal with details.(3) When cognitive operation is focused on a particular object of the external world, it is called knowledge. When cognitive operation changes its focus from one thing to another, it is called perception. In this transitional moment, it is not focused on any particular object and therefore this phase of cognition is called unfocused (NIRVISHAYA).(4) In plain words, mere apprehension of an object is perception and awareness of particulars is knowledge. These occur in succession in worldly souls, but simultaneously in souls that have eliminated karmas.(5)
The eight subtypes of knowledge-related cognition are sensory-cognition-related, literal-knowledge-related, extraordinary-knowledge-related, mental-knowledge-related, absolute-knowledge-related, false sensory-cognition-related, false literal-knowledge-related and false extraordinary-knowledge-related. Remember that the first three kinds of knowledge can be true as well as false.(6)
The four subtypes of perception-related cognition are sensory-perception-related, extrasensory-perception-related, extraordinary-perception-related and absolute-perception-related. It should be pointed out that mental knowledge entails extrasensory perception. Thus perception-related cognition associated with mental knowledge is not mentioned separately.(7)
The liberated souls possess absolute-knowledge-related and absolute-perception related consciousness only.
Two classes of the living entity:
SAMSAARINO MUKTAASHCHA |2-10|
Souls are classified into two categories: worldly souls and liberated souls.
The number of souls in the universe is infinite. All souls are identical as far as possession of consciousness is concerned. Some souls are worldly souls and others are liberated souls. The worldly souls are associated with karmas - physical (DRAVYA) karmas and abstract (BHAAV) karmas. Consequently, they possess material bodies and go through cycles of birth and death. When a worldly soul, through self-endeavor, succeeds in shedding the karmic bondage, it becomes liberated. Transmigration of worldly souls has no beginning and it ends in liberation. It should be pointed out that liberation is a gradual process, and that only human beings have the potential for liberation.
Classification of worldly souls:
SAMANSKAAMANASKAAH |2-11|
Worldly beings fall into two classes, those who possess mind (MANAH, faculty of thinking) and those who do not.
There are two features of mind, physical mind (DRAVYA MANAH) and abstract mind (BHAAV MANAH). Together, they constitute the thinking faculty. The physical mind consists of organs of the body that help in thinking. These are formed as a consequence of subsidence-cum-destruction (KSHAYOPASHAM) of the corresponding physique-determining karma. The abstract mind develops due to subsidence-cum-destruction of the potential-obstructing (VEERYAANTARAAYA) karma. Living beings with physical mind invariably have abstract mind to a greater or lesser degree. (8) The degree of thinking ability of an individual is determined by the extent of subsidence-cum-destruction of the potential-obstructing karma. This explains the variations in the thinking faculty (intelligence) of different individuals. Remember, modification of karmas in the possession of a soul can occur through self-endeavor and due to the circumstances of the individual (NOKARMAs). Thus an individual can enhance one's potential with encouragement, determination and diligence.
Note that this classification pertains to worldly souls only. This classification is not relevant to the liberated souls.
Another classification of worldly souls:
SAMSAARINASTRASASTHAAVARAAH |2-12|
Another classification of worldly beings is mobile (TRAS) and immobile (STHAAVAR).
Mobile living beings can move from one place to another on their own, while the immobile ones do not. This is a rather cursory criterion. For example, a chick developing in an egg does not move on its own accord but it is indeed a mobile being, and blowing wind is immobile though it is observed to flow due to external causes. In fact, the mobile living beings possess mobile-physique-determining karma and the immobile living beings have immobile-physique-determining karma.
Types of immobile living beings:
PRITHIVYAPTEJOVAAYUVANASPATAYAH STHAAVARAAH |2-13|
Immobile (STHAAVAR) living beings are earth-bodied, water-bodied, fire-bodied, air-bodied and plant-bodied. These have only one sense, that of touch.
According to Jain metaphysics, living beings can have bodies of rocks, soil, water, fire, air and plants. This does not refer to the numerous tiny organisms living in soil, water, air and plants. The one-sensed life forms are different from them. This implies that a fire or a piece of rock or a mass of air can have a soul. These one-sensed living beings are born and they die as any other worldly beings. Note that earlier, modern science did not accept that plants are living entities. The famous Indian scientist, Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose, demonstrated, through his experiments, that plants have life. Similarly, according to Jainism, objects such as a piece of rock and a mass of air have life; they have souls. It should be remarked that not all rocks, bodies of water, fires, masses of air and plants have souls in them. Thus, rocks, soil, water, fire, air and plants can be living as well as lifeless.
Immobile living beings possess four life processes (vitalities). These are the sense-organ of touch, potentiality, respiration and life span.
Types of mobile living beings:
DWEEDINDRIYAADAYASTRASAAH |2-14|
Two-sensed, three-sensed, four-sensed and five-sensed living beings are mobile (TRAS) living being.
The life form obtained by a soul through the fruition of mobile-physique-determining karma is mobile lifeform. Living beings in mobile life form can have two senses, or three senses, four senses or all five senses. The second sense-organ is related to taste and speech. Thus it furnishes two life-processes, taste and speech. In addition to the respective sense-organs and speech, the mobile living beings also possess the life-processes of potentiality, respiration and life span just as the immobile living beings do.
Five senses:
PANCHENDRIYAANI |2-15|
Jain metaphysics recognizes five senses (INDRIYAs).
Senses are characteristic features of a living being. Each sense constitutes a channel (organ) to perceive and know the various entities of the universe. Living beings have some other organs, such as mouth, hands, wings, tails, legs and feet, as well. But they are not included in senses in the present context of consciousness (UPAYOGA). The senses of interest in this context are called sense-organs that are used for acquiring knowledge (JNAANENDRIYAs) as opposed to organs used for manual activities (KARMENDRIYAs), like legs, hands and wings.
Two components of senses:
DWIVIDHAANI |2-16|
Each sense has two components, physical sense (DRAVYENDRIYA) and abstract sense (BHAAVENDRIYA).
Each sense has a physical component, the organ of the body of a living being, and an abstract component, which consists of the modes or mental states of the being.
Physical senses:
NIRVRITYUPAKARANE DRAVYENDRIYAM |2-17|
The physical sense consists of formation (NIRVRITTI) of material particles and iotas (PRADESH) of soul, and functionality (UPAKARAN) - capability to function as an instrument for acquiring perception and knowledge.
On account of the fruition of the respective physique-determining (NAAM) karma, material particles assume the shape of the physical sense such as a nose or an eye. This constitutes external formation. The iotas of soul of the living being assume the shape of the respective sense organ. This is called internal formation.
Each properly formed sense organ possesses the capability to perceive and know various objects. This functionality (UPAKARAN) is also external, such as the eyelids, and internal, like the lens of an eye and retina.
Abstract senses:
LABDHYUPAYOGAU BHAAVENDRIYAM |2-18|
Acquisition of mental capability (LABDHI) and application of consciousness (cognitive operation, UPAYOGA) constitute features of abstract senses.
When destruction-cum-subsidence of sensory-cognition-obscuring (MATIJNAANAAVARNI), sensory-perception-obscuring (CHAKSHUDARSHANAAVARNI) and extrasensory-perception-obscuring (ACHAKSHUDARSHANAAVARNI) karmas is achieved, the living being acquires the capability to perceive and know. This is called acquisition. Further, acquisition (LABDHI) coupled with formation (NIRVRITTI) of physical sense organs and functionality (UPAKARAN) leads to application (UPAYOGA) of cognitive operation. This is the process through which worldly beings acquire knowledge.
Names of the five senses:
SPARSHANARASANAGHRAANACHAKSHUHSHROTRAANI |2-19|
The five senses are sense of touch (skin, SPARSHAN), sense of taste (tongue, RASANA), sense of smell (nose, GRAAN), sense of sight (eyes, CHAKSHU) and sense of hearing (ears, SHROTRA).
Remember that, as stated above, each one of the five senses have two components, physical and abstract. A living being obtains both components simultaneously. Along with the fruition of a subclass of the physique-determining (NAAM) karma, the destruction-cum-subsidence of the corresponding sensory-cognition-obscuring (MATIJNAANAAVARNI) also occurs. Thus physical and abstract senses are developed together. However, in some cases, it is observed that a person has seemingly developed physical sense organs such as eyes or ears but he/she is unable to see or hear. This is on account of the presence of some physical and/or mental (related to the nervous system) defects in the sense organ.
Objects of senses:
SPARSHARASAGANDHAVARNASHABDAASTADARTHAH |2-20|
The objects of the five senses are touch, taste, smell, color and sound, respectively.
There are two kinds of substances in the universe, tangible (MOORT) and intangible (AMOORT). Tangible substances can be detected through one or more of the five senses, while the intangible substances can not be detected through the senses. It should be pointed out that a tangible object has a number of attributes and modes which are grasped through various senses. For example, an apple possesses touch, taste (flavor), smell, color. It also produces sound when it falls from a tree or is eaten. All tangible substances have the attributes of touch, taste, smell, color and sound that are object of the respective sense organs. However, some of the attributes of certain substances are not recognizable by the corresponding sense organs. For example, our senses can discern only the color and touch of sunlight. Its taste, smell and sound are not discernible to us.
It is evident that touch, taste, smell and color are attribute based (GUNAPARYAYA) objects of senses while sound is mode based (VYANJANAPARYAYA). As an example, consider sound waves in air, which are not an attribute of air but they are modes generated by suitable means.
Object of mind:
SHRUTAMANINDRIYASYA |2-21|
The objects of mind (ANINDRIYA, pseudo-sensory organ or ANTAHKARAN, internal sensory organ) consist of knowledge (SHRUT, pieces of information) acquired through the five senses.
The five senses help living beings grasp general features of an object. For example, the external senses grasp the shape and color of an apple, along with its smell and feel. The function of the mind (thinking faculty) is to discern that it is an apple and not an orange. Thus the mind assists in the acquisition of sensory cognition (MATIJNAAN). Further, the mind helps in obtaining literal or scriptural knowledge (SHRUT JNAAN) as well. We read the scriptures and other books, listen to discourses, participate in discussions, and logically ponder over the concepts presented. This is the process of acquiring knowledge. Our minds play a pivotal role in these activities.
As logical thinking, discernment and decision making are important, literal knowledge is considered to be the object of mind.
Footnotes:
1. Based on the following commentaries on TATTVAARTH SUTRA:
TATTVAARTH SUTRA by Acharya Umaswati, commentary by Pandit Sukh Lal Sanghvi, English translation by K. K. Dixit, published by L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1974.
TATTVAARTH SUTRA by Acharya Umaswati, commentary by Pandit Phool Chandra Siddhantacharya, published by Varni Granthmala, Varanasi, 1949.
TATTVAARTH SUTRA by Acharya Umaswati, commentary by Pandit Mohan Lal Shastri, published by Saral Jain Granth Bhandar, Jabalpur, 1983.
Reality, English translation of Acharya Pujya Pad's SARVAARTHASIDDHI by S. A. Jain, published by Vir Sasana Sangha, Calcutta, 1960.
'That Which Is', a commentary on TATTVAARTH SUTRA by Dr Nath Mal Tatia, published by Harper Collins, 1994.
2. The word SUTRA means aphorism &endash; a short sentence stating a general truth. Prayers and scriptures containing SUTRAs as well are called SUTRAs. Back up
3. TATTVAARTH SUTRA by Acharya Umaswati, commentary by Pandit Phool Chandra Siddhantacharya, published by Varni Granthmala, Varanasi, 1949, page 88. Back up
4. KARMA RAHASYA by Jinendra Varni, Jinendra Varni Granthmala, Panipat, 1981, pages 103-104. Back up
5. Reality, English translation of Acharya Pujya Pad's SARVAARTHASIDDHI by S. A. Jain, published by Vir Sasana Sangha, Calcutta, 1960, page 56. Back up
6. TATTVAARTH SUTRA by Acharya Umaswati, Sutra 1-31. Back up
7. TATTVAARTH SUTRA by Acharya Umaswati, commentary by Pandit Phool Chandra Siddhantacharya, published by Varni Granthmala, Varanasi, 1949, page 89. Back up
8. TATTVAARTH SUTRA by Acharya Umaswati, commentary by Pandit Phool Chandra Siddhantacharya, published by Varni Granthmala, Varanasi, 1949, page 91. Back up