From Religious Books:
Jainism, like Buddhism, is indifferent if not opposed to the Vedas. The similarity between Buddhism and Jainism is apparent. It would not be just to say that the rise of Jainism was due to the sufferings of the common people. One must not lose sight of the fact that in the beginning of the epic period there was a general ferment of thought. When different views of life professed by different people came in sharp contact with each other, they gave rise to intense feelings and beliefs. Jainism is an outcome of this mental unrest which prevailed at the beginning of the era. The doctrine of rebirth enunciated by the Upanishads led to the belief that all (living) things in the world possessed souls. Like Brahmanism and Buddhism, Jainism might be defined as a "way to escape" not from death but from life; but unlike either of them, it hopes to escape not into nothingness, nor into absorption but into a state of being without (alien) qualities, emotions or relations and removed from the possibilities of rebirth.
The doctrine of Jain philosophy is based on the foremost necessity of conquering the grosser self for the realization of truth. Jains believe that only the TEERTHANKARs can give a code of conduct for life for they are pure souls who have attained perfection. Jainism is not theistic system. It does not believe in the existence of a God who is the creator and ruler of the universe. The highest is a person and not a Being. Jains believe that the universe is formed of everlasting entities and therefore it will exist eternally. The universe has developed and will continue to develop by the interplay of substances. "There can be no destruction of things that do not exist nor can there be creation of things out of nothing. Things come into existence and cease to exist because of modes and attributes." Jains repudiate the theory of creation of the universe out of nothing or by accident. There are six entities that constitute the universe. These are souls, matter, fulcrum of motion, fulcrum of rest, space and time. The diversities of the universe are traced to cooperating conditions of time (KAAL), nature (SWABHAAV), exigency (NIYATI), activity (KARMA) and endeavor (UDHYAM). A seed may have the potentiality to grow into a tree but it must have the help of time, natural environments, the act of being placed in the soil.
The universe, according to Jainism, is divided into sentient beings (CHETAN) and non-sentient things (ACHETAN or JADA). They have been interplaying since time immemorial. The soul, which is a spiritual spark in a living being, is capable of knowing, feeling and thinking. Each soul retains its individuality. It is eternal and self-existing. Every soul is full of consciousness and is omniscient. It is an embodiment of eternal knowledge and has infinite capacity to cast off karmic matter that binds it. Its innate nature is absolute perception, supreme knowledge and pristine conduct. So long as the soul transmigrates (on account of its association with karmas), it passes through evolutions and involutions. The living and the non-living interact and cause modifications in the universe that cause evolution.
According to Jainism, there are infinite living beings in the universe. They belong to two categories:
(1) The liberated souls who have shed all bondages and have attained perfection.
(2) The worldly souls who go through cycles of birth and death on account of the fetters of karmas.
The Jain philosophy is founded on nine principles (aspects of reality). These are soul (JEEV), non-soul (AJEEV), merit (PUNYA), demerit (PAAP), influx of karmas (AASHRAV, cause of merit and demerit), bondage of karmas (BANDH), stoppage of influx of karmas (SAMVAR), shedding of karmas (NIRJARA, destruction of action) and liberation (MOKSHA, freedom of soul from all actions).
The characteristics of soul, the first of these principles, are described as: "It performs different kinds of actions, it reaps the fruits of those actions, it wanders through various reincarnations. These and none other are the characteristics of soul." The soul has also been described as a conscious substance, imperceptible to senses, an active agent, and as large as the body it animates. All worldly beings possess from four to ten life processes. These are five senses of touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing; three faculties of physique, mind and speech; respiration and life-span. The lowest life form possesses four life processes, while the highest, all ten.
The essence of soul is consciousness (CHAITANYA) which has two manifestations, perception and knowledge. The former is mere apprehension of the object while the latter is a detailed understanding of the particulars. There is a fusion of pure perception and knowledge in a supreme soul (one who has annihilated all disturbing elements, that is, knowledge-obscuring, perception-obscuring, deluding and obstructing karmas). Such souls do not possess passions and emotions - they are VEETARAAG. The interest and involvement in the external world - attachment and aversion, comprise impediment to true knowledge. It is only when the adverse elements are completely annihilated, that the soul sparkles its natural glow and vibrates with its natural music exercising its natural functions. Such deliverance is attained through suppression of the lower elements by higher spirit. Morality is absolutely essential to shape man's nature and stop the influx of fresh karmas. The path to liberation is inner conversion.
The second principle is non-soul (inanimate things), which includes matter, fulcrum of motion, fulcrum of rest, space and time. Non-soul is the opposite of soul in all respects. Matter is with form (SAROOPI, tangible), it can be recognized through our senses, and it can be consumed or destroyed or it may decay or alter its form. It possesses touch, taste, smell and color, and its modes generate sound. Fulcrum of motion, fulcrum of rest, space and time are without form (AROOPI, intangible). Freedom of soul entails disassociating from matter.
The third principle is merit (PUNYA). Thoughts, feelings and actions that lead to the influx of good karmas, which, in turn, bring peace of mind and spiritual happiness, constitute merit. Merit according to Jainism is not merely knowledge of good but a genuine will for good. Further, Jain sages hold that in addition to will and knowledge there must be a supreme effort, an act of personal resolution without which merit can not be achieved. The will to act is called VEERYA - moral strength consisting in wilfully practicing the good with intelligence and diligence. A constant practice of virtuous acts transforms the soul, providing it with a source of energy to rise higher. Meritorious acts include providing food, clothing and shelter, wishing well of everyone, rendering service including medicine to save life, speaking without offending anybody and by offering salutations. Great emphasis is laid on selfless service. Service performed with sincerity not only opens the vision, enlarges the heart, and brings out the higher qualities of man; but also sets up such action currents that contribute to the evolution of the individual self.
The fourth principle is demerit (PAAP). Merit is moral strength and demerit is moral weakness. It results from the preponderance of passion for sensual gratification. It is the dominance of instincts and impulses. The important factor regarding merit and demerit is the free will of the individual to indulge in them. Man is free to choose between the two alternatives. [No higher entity commands us to follow the code of ethics.] Demeritorious action currents blur our vision and knowledge, and retard spiritual progress. The central theme of Jainism - nonviolence, is not so much saving life as refraining from destroying it. Jainism distinguishes between spiritual violence (BHAAV HIMSA) and physical violence (DRAVYA HIMSA). Spiritual violence consists of having untoward thoughts and feelings such as desiring ill of others. It is violence of the self for the most part. Another aspect of spiritual violence is lack of interest and effort to develop the self mentally and intellectually. Physical violence consists of obstructing the life processes of self and/or of another living being. In addition to violence, Jains recognize the following offenses that bring demerit: untruthfulness, dishonesty, unchastity, courteousness (coupled with insincerity), anger, conceit, intrigue, avarice, passion, attachment (AASAKTI, fondness), hatred, quarrelsomeness, slander, back-biting, criticizing, lack of self-control and hypocrisy (including blind faith). Note that passion is the synthesis of anger, conceit, intrigue and avarice. The celebrated Jain scripture, UTTARAADHYAYAN SUTRA, annunciates that when wrath is vanquished forgiveness enters, when conceit is vanquished humility rises, intrigue gives place to simplicity, and when avarice is vanquished contentment dawns. It should be pointed out that demerit impedes knowledge and has an untoward effect on physical health and spiritual vision.
The fifth principle is influx of karma particles (AASHRAV) toward the soul. It is caused by subreption (MITHYAATVA), lack of self-control (AVIRATI), passion (KASHAAYA), negligence (PRAMAAD) and the functional activity of mind, speech and body (YOGA). In plain words, emotions involving anger, conceit, hypocrisy, greed, attachment to material objects, and neglect of the five virtues of nonviolence, truth, non-stealing, chastity and non-possessiveness lead to the influx of karmas.
When karmas coalesce with the soul, bondage (BANDH) occurs. This is the sixth principle. All our sorrows and afflictions are due to the influx and bondage of karmas. Karmic matter works as a veil of ignorance and prevents the unfolding of right vision. All worldly souls are under the influence of eight kinds of karmas. The first one impedes knowledge (JNAANAAVARNI), the second one eclipses perception (DARSHAANAAVARNI), the third kind causes the feelings of pleasure and pain (VEDANEEYA), the fourth kind deludes vision (MOHANEEYA), the fifth kind determines the life span of a worldly being (AAYU), the sixth kind is responsible for the physique of living being (NAAM), the seventh kind is responsible for the life form acquired by a worldly soul (GOTRA) and the eighth kind limits the potential of a worldly soul (ANTARAAYA).
The seventh principle is converse of influx of karmic matter. It is stoppage (SAMVAR) of karmic influx. Stopping the influx of karmas entails avoiding the causes of influx, which include passions and functional activity of mind, speech and body. One must exercise the greatest possible care in averting injury to any living creature, even whilst walking, sitting or sleeping. One must guard one's speech, which must be soft and kindly. One must be particular in matters of food, possession of materials and discarding refuse. There are guidelines regarding regulating activities of mind as well. One should maintain equanimity in joy, distress, happiness and grief. One should endure hardships such as hunger, thirst, cold and heat; be content with any kind of clothes and shelter; and be content with one's circumstances. One must practice the ten ultimate virtues (DASH DHARM) of forgiveness, modesty, straightforwardness, truthfulness, cleanliness, self-control, penance, renunciation, non-attachment and celibacy. One should concentrate on the twelve contemplations (ANUPREKSHA).(2)
The eighth principle is shedding of karmas (NIRJARA) through penance (austerities), external and internal. External penance consists of total fasting, partial fasting, restrictions in the mode of accepting food, scrupulously relinquishing various delicacies, mortification of body and sleeping in a solitary place. The internal penance consists of atonement, reverence, service to the worthy, self-study of scriptures, relinquishment of pride and ego, and meditation.(3)
The ninth principle is salvation (MOKSHA). A soul attains salvation by shedding all karmic bondage. It is the culmination of the spiritual pursuit of a soul. A liberated soul is pure - free from all material bondage. It enjoys its intrinsic attributes of absolute perception and knowledge for ever and ever.
An individual in pursuit of spiritual progress has to adopt rationalism (SAMYAKTVA) - the three jewels of Jainism, which are rational perception, rational knowledge and rational conduct. Of these, rational perception is the first and foremost. It is fostered by avoiding immoralities such as suspicion, desire, revulsion, indiscreetness and criticism.(4) Knowledge and conduct become rational and consequential only through rational perception. Rational knowledge reveals the nature of things as they are and with certainty. One who possesses rational knowledge begins to adopt rational conduct.
Rational conduct essentially entails adopting the five vows. These are nonviolence, truth, non-stealing, chastity and non-possessiveness.(5) The vow of truth requires not uttering falsehoods which include rash speech, revealing secrets, speaking ill of others and giving false advice. The Jain scriptures consider that untruth, stealing, unchastity and possessiveness are aspects of violence. Ascetics follow these vows in the strictest sense, called major vows Householders practice them to a lesser degree, known as minor vows. Both, ascetics and householders avoid intentional violence. As far as unintentional violence is concerned, the ascetics avoid it to the extremes while householders minimize it as much as possible.
Householders complement the minor vows with three augmenting vows of limiting the field of activity, limiting needless activities and limiting direct as well as indirect delectations.(6) Further, householders follow the four learning vows of periodic limit on the field of activity, practice of equanimity, partial or total fasting and service to the virtuous.(7) The Jain teachers prescribed eleven grades (PRATIMAs) - steps for householders to move toward asceticism. These are: Adopting rational perception, taking the vows, practicing equanimity, fasting on certain holy days, keeping purity of food, observing continence by day, observing total continence, giving up household activities, gradually abandoning one's material possessions, renouncing approval of activities of household life, renunciation of specially prepared food and lodging.(8)
An individual in pursuit of spiritual uplift progresses through the fourteen stages of spiritual development.(9) Thus he/she gradually sheds the karmic matter associated with his/her soul. Eventually, the intrinsic attributes of the soul are unveiled and the soul becomes liberated. Evidently, Jain metaphysics represents the interplay of soul and karma.
The quintessence of the Jain philosophy lies not only in the fact that it has co-related ethical teachings with its metaphysical system, but also in the amazing knowledge of human nature which its ethics displays. In Jainism, God is not regarded as a creator. The perfected soul (SIDDHA) is fit for worship as God - an ideal to follow. He who is omniscient, free from all love of the world and from all failings, he who is worshiped by all and who explains the inner meanings of religion as it exists; this adorable entity is God. He is free from hunger, thirst, old age, disease, birth, death, fear, pride, attachment, aversion, infatuation, wrong conceit, hatred, uneasiness, sweat, sleep and surprise. It is said that a soul, which being free from all relation to others and from alien thoughts through its own intrinsic nature of perception and understanding perceives and knows its own eternal nature to be such, is said to have conduct that is absolutely self-determined. 'Man thou art thine own friend, why wishest thou a friend beyond thyself.' The only enemy of the soul is its own karmas (actions) but the soul has the capacity to destroy the karma by becoming self-conscious. It is evident that there is no fatalism in Jain tenets. For though karma is a vital force yet our present life has power and force to evade the effects of past karmas.
Footnotes:
1. Adapted from the book 'Glimpses of World Religions', (author unknown), published by Jaico Publishing House, Bombay, India 1983. Back up
2. For details, please see 'Twelve Contemplations' by Manish Modi, Jain Study Circular, April 1998, pages 6-14. Back up
3. For details, please see 'Quotations From Scriptures', Jain Study Circular, July 1995, pages 3-7; October 1995, pages 3-6; April 1996, pages 3-6; July 1996, pages 3-9. Back up
4. For details, please see 'Studies In Jainism: Reader 2', pages 67-70. Back up
5. For details, please see 'Studies In Jainism: Reader 2', pages 38-41. Back up
6. For details, please see 'Studies In Jainism: Reader 2', pages 79-85. Back up
7. For details, please see 'Studies In Jainism: Reader 2', pages 93-99. Back up
8. Some details are presented in 'The Jaina Path of Purification' by Dr. Padmanabh S. Jaini, published by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1979, page 186. Back up
9. For details, please see 'Studies In Jainism: Reader 2', pages 60-64. Back up