Quotations From Scriptures (continued from July 2003 issue):
Introduction:
Acharya Umaswati's TATTVAARTH SUTRA (2) is a systematic and comprehensive presentation of the principles of Jainism. As the name implies, it is a brief treatise on TATTVAs - aspects of reality, which include living beings (JEEVs), non-living entities (AJEEVs), influx of karmic matter (AASHRAV), binding of karmic matter (BANDH), stoppage of karmic influx (SAMVAR), shedding of karmic matter (NIRJARA) and liberation (salvation MOKSHA). In the process of discussing these aspects of reality, Acharya Umaswati presents the theory of karma and the path to salvation.
In previous issues, rational perception was explained, and, sensory cognition and literal knowledge were discussed. The explanation of the remaining three kinds of knowledge, extraordinary knowledge, mental knowledge and absolute knowledge, is presented in the following segment.
Inherent extraordinary knowledge:
BHAVATPRAYAYOAVADHIRDEVANAARAKAANAAM |1-21|
Worldly beings in the heavenly (DEV) and hellish (NARAK) states of existence (GATI) possess inherent (inborn) extraordinary knowledge (BHVAPRATYAYA AVADHI JNAAN).
There are two kinds of extraordinary knowledge (clairvoyance AVADHI JNAAN): inherent (BHAVAPRATYAYA) and cultivated (GUNAPRATYAYA). Cultivated extraordinary knowledge is also called destruction-cum-subsidential (KSHAYOPASHAM NIMITTAK) extraordinary knowledge, although both kinds of extraordinary knowledge arise from destruction-cum-subsidence of knowledge-obscuring karma. In other words, extraordinary knowledge occurs when the intensity of extraordinary-knowledge-obscuring karma is decreased and it is in a dormant state.
Extraordinary knowledge is gained without the use of senses. It is the ability to know things and events in distant places that happened at various times. Extraordinary knowledge is limited with respect to substratum or nature of substances (DRAVYA), space (KSHETRA), time (KAAL) and characteristics (BHAAV). The limits depend on the state of existence of the soul as well as on the degree of destruction-cum-subsidence of karma.
Worldly beings in the heavenly and hellish states of existence are born with inherent extraordinary knowledge and thus they possess a limited capability to perceive things and events in remote places and times.
It should be pointed out that destruction-cum-subsidence of knowledge-obscuring karma is necessary for the inherent extraordinary knowledge as well, although it is related to the heavenly and hellish states of existence.
Cultivated extraordinary knowledge:
KSHAYOPASHAMANIMITTAH SHADVIKALPAH SHESHAANAAM |1-22|
Worldly beings in the human and sub-human states of existence can develop six kinds of cultivated extraordinary knowledge.
Worldly beings in human (MANUSHYA) and sub-human (TIRYANCH) states of existence can acquire cultivated extraordinary knowledge through destruction-cum-subsidence of knowledge-obscuring karma. Cultivated extraordinary knowledge is of six kinds as follows:
Enduring (ANUGAAMI) - extraordinary knowledge that abides from one life to the next life
Fleeting (ANANUGAAMI) - extraordinary knowledge that abides only in the present life
Expanding (VARDHAMAAN) - extraordinary knowledge that increases in scope, space, time and characteristics
Diminishing (HEEYAMAAN) - extraordinary knowledge that decreases in scope, space, time and characteristics
Stable (AVASTHIT) - extraordinary knowledge that does not change in any aspect
Variable (ANAVASTHIT) - extraordinary knowledge that increases and decreases like ocean tides in various aspects
Two kinds of mental knowledge:
RJUVIPULAMATI MANAHPARYAYAH |1-23|
Mental knowledge (telepathy MANAHPARYAYAH JNAAN) is of two kinds: simple (plain RIJU MATI) and complex (intricate VIPUL MATI).
Mental knowledge is the ability to perceive the mental states of others without the use of senses. It is observed that at times, one can decipher the thoughts and intentions of another person by studying his/her facial expression and/or motions. Similarly, a person who possesses mental knowledge has the ability to perceive the objects of other person's mental activity. The individual first acquires sensory cognition (MATI JNAAN) by observing the other individual or his/her particulars such as setting (circumstances) and actions. Then he/she deciphers the mental states of the other person through mental knowledge. Only plain straightforward mental states and situations are the objects of simple mental knowledge, while straightforward as well as intricate mental states and situations constitute the objects of complex mental knowledge.
Distinguishing features of simple and complex mental knowledge:
VISHUDDHYAPRATIPAATAABHYAAM TADVISHESHAH |1-24|
The two kinds of mental knowledge, simple and complex, are distinguished by purity (VISHUDDHI) and infallibility (APRATIPAAT).
An individual achieves fractional purity of karmic matter through destruction-cum-subsidence of mental-knowledge-obstructing karma. The degree of purity is less in case of simple mental knowledge, while it is higher in case of complex mental knowledge. On account of a higher degree of purity, extremely subtle and sophisticated mental states can be deciphered through complex mental knowledge. The other distinguishing feature of mental knowledge is the infallibility that is attained by an individual through spiritual discipline. Simple mental knowledge is short-lived and fallible, while complex mental knowledge lasts until one attains omniscience.
Distinguishing features of extraordinary knowledge and mental knowledge:
VISHUDDHIKSHETRASWAAMIVISHAYEBHYOAVADHIMANAHPARYAYO |1-25|
Extraordinary knowledge and mental knowledge are distinguished by purity (VISHUDDHI), space (KSHETRA), knower (possesser SWAAMI) and objects (VISHAYA).
The objects perceived by mental knowledge are far more subtle than those grasped by extraordinary knowledge. In this respect, the former has a higher degree of purity than the latter. The objects of mental knowledge exist only in the space where human beings reside, while the objects of extraordinary knowledge occupy the entire universe. Extraordinary knowledge can be acquired by living beings in all four states of existence (human, subhuman, hellish and heavenly), while mental knowledge can be acquired only by highly spiritually advanced human beings. In fact, ascetics in the perfect vow (seventh APRAMATTAVIRAT) stage of spiritual development through the delusionless (twelfth KSHEENAMOHA) stage (3) can only acquire mental knowledge. The objects (entities) of extraordinary knowledge are all substances and their modes, while the objects of mental knowledge belong in the minds of human beings only.
Objects of sensory cognition and literal knowledge:
MATISHRUTAYORNIBANDHO DRAVYASHVASARVAPARYAAYESHU |1-26|
All entities (DRAVYA) of the universe and a limited number of their modes (transformations) constitute the objects of sensory cognition and literal knowledge.
Sensory cognition involves the operation of five senses and mind (the faculty of thinking). Although all entities of the universe can be perceived through sensory cognition, it should be pointed out that at a given instant, an individual can focus on a limited number of substances. Further, only a limited number of transformations of various substances can be grasped by our senses.
As stated earlier (in aphorism 1-20), literal knowledge is preceded by sensory knowledge. The knowledge contained in the scriptures is understood by individuals through self-study (SWAADHYAAYA), religious discourses and discussions. These involve the use of senses and the faculty of thinking (MANAH). This is the way to acquire literal knowledge.
Remember that sensory knowledge involves only the present modes and transformations of objects, while literal knowledge involves the past and future modes and transformations as well. Nevertheless, literal (scriptural) knowledge, like sensory knowledge, is partial and incomplete. Further, the authenticity of sensory and literal knowledge gained by an individual depends on the nature of destruction-cum-subsidence of the respective knowledge-obscuring karmas. In plain words, sensory cognition and literal knowledge depend on the interpretation and understanding of the individual.
Objects of extraordinary knowledge:
ROOPISHVAVADHEH |1-27|
Material objects (PUDGAL DRAVYA) and their transformations constitute the objects of extraordinary knowledge.
Extraordinary knowledge can grasp only material objects and their transformations. The Jain scriptures state that energy is a form of matter. Thus extraordinary knowledge apprehends energy and its interactions with matter as well. It should be pointed out that extraordinary knowledge is limited and its scope does not include all material objects and their transformations.
Objects of mental knowledge:
TADANANTABHAAGE MANAHPARYAYASYA |1-28|
The scope of mental knowledge is an infinitesimal part of the scope of extraordinary knowledge.
As stated above (in aphorism 1-25), the objects of mental knowledge exist only in the space where human beings reside. Further, mental knowledge recognizes the modes in other peoples' mind only. Therefore, the number of objects of mental knowledge are far fewer than those of extraordinary knowledge. It should be remarked that extraordinary knowledge does not comprehend the mental states of any individual.
Objects of absolute knowledge (omniscience):
SARVADRAVYAPARYAAYESHU KEVALASYA |1-29|
The objects of absolute knowledge (omniscience KEVAL JNAAN) comprise all entities (DRAVYA) of the universe and their transformations.
On shedding knowledge-obscuring, perception-obscuring, deluding and obstructing karmas, a worldly soul attains omniscience. An omniscient has absolute knowledge. It is perfect and infinite. Thus the scope of absolute knowledge is infinite. It encompasses all entities of the universe, material as well as ethereal, and their transformations. The six entities of the universe are souls, matter and energy, medium of motion, medium of rest, space and time,
Kinds of knowledge an individual can possess:
AEKAADEENI BHAAJYAANI YUGAPADEKASMINA CHATURBHYAH |1-30|
A soul can possess one, two, three or four kinds of knowledge simultaneously.
Sensory cognition, literal knowledge, extraordinary knowledge and mental knowledge are caused by destruction-cum-subsidence of knowledge-obscuring karma, while absolute knowledge is attained by shedding of the four soul-influencing karmas. Thus an omniscient possesses only absolute knowledge. In this instance, the knowledge-obscuring karma does not exist and so its destruction-cum-subsidence is not possible. Consequently, an omniscient possesses only absolute knowledge and no other kind of knowledge.
All worldly souls possess varying degrees of sensory cognition and literal knowledge. Their nature and scope depend upon the degree of destruction-cum-subsidence of the respective knowledge-obscuring karmas.
In addition to these, some worldly souls can develop either extraordinary knowledge and/or mental knowledge. Such worldly souls possess three or four kinds of knowledge simultaneously.
It should be pointed out that although a worldly soul has the potentiality of possessing four kinds of knowledge, it can have only one kind of knowledge in operation at a given instant of time.
Kinds of knowledge that are fallible:
MATISHRUTAAVADHAYO VIPARYAYASHCHA |1-31|
Sensory cognition, literal knowledge and extraordinary knowledge are fallible.
Sensory, literal and extraordinary knowledge can be rational (logical and reasonable) or irrational (illogical and fallacious). In general, the knowledge and perception of worldly souls are deluded on account of their association with deluding karma. With self-endeavor, when a worldly soul accomplishes partial shedding or subsidence of deluding karma, the knowledge becomes rational to a certain degree. Thus the first three kinds of knowledge can be irrational (false) or rational (true).
Knowledge acquired through the study of scriptures is literal knowledge. Some individuals believe that each and every concept presented in the scriptures is absolutely true and thus one can learn absolute truth by studying the scriptures. In this regard, the following couplet from Acharya Kundkund's SAMAYASAAR is enlightening: (4)
The scripture is not realistic knowledge,
because the scripture knows not anything;
therefore, as has been preached by the JINs,
knowledge is entirely different from scripture.
Scripture does not represent absolute knowledge because it is inanimate and it does not possess consciousness. Knowledge is an attribute of souls and thus souls possess knowledge. The attributes, including knowledge of worldly souls, are partially obscured because of the association of karmas. One can unveil the knowledge of self by studying the scriptures and through rational thinking.
In this couplet, Acharya Kundkund essentially states that accepting the concepts presented in any scripture without rational scrutiny is not the way to acquire discerning knowledge. It is blind faith. This is a fundamental principle of Jainism. We Jains do not believe in questing a scripture as a Bible or Koran of Jainism. We do not contend that any scripture contains the absolute truth.
Defilement of knowledge:
SADASATORAVISHESHAADYADRICHCHHOPALABDHERUNMATTAVAT |1-32|
On account of clouded and tainted perception like that of an intoxicated person, an individual loses the ability to distinguish between true (real SAT) and untrue (unreal ASAT). Consequently his/her knowledge becomes defiled.
The Sanskrit words 'SAT' and 'ASAT' mean 'what exists' and 'what does not exist', respectively. In other words, 'SAT' implies reality. Obviously, an individual's concept of reality depends on his/her perception. Jainism promotes conviction in substances ascertained as they truly are. This is rational perception or right belief, which leads to rational knowledge. On the other hand, accepting concepts and beliefs without discrimination based on what is written in a scripture or preached by some individual is like being under the influence of alcohol or drugs. It is blind faith and the knowledge acquired in this manner is irrational. In plain words, blind faith, emotions aroused by religious zeal and inspirational and passionate charades are like intoxication. These do not promote rational perception and knowledge.
Logical process of ascertaining reality:
NAIGAMASAMGRAHAVYAVAHAARRJUSOOTRASHABDASAMABHIROODHAIVAMBHOOTA NAYAAH |1-33|
The logical process of ascertaining reality consists of the following viewpoints:
Purpose-based viewpoint (NAIGAM NAYA), class-based viewpoint (SAMGRAH NAYA), analytic viewpoint (VYAVAHAAR NAYA), the viewpoint of momentariness (RIJUSUTRA NAYA), the viewpoint of terminology (SHABD NAYA), the viewpoint of derivatives (SAMABHIROODH NAYA), and the viewpoint of manifestation (EVAMBHOOT NAYA).
The scheme of viewpoints (NAYAs) is the analytical method of acquiring and ascertaining knowledge. (5) A particular viewpoint is called NAYA in Sanskrit. It does not rule out other viewpoints. A particular stance describes a partial truth and not the whole truth. It is right from its own point of view but it is wrong when it rejects other points of view. If we organize all viewpoints so that they supplement each other, then we can arrive at 'the whole truth' or the right view in its entirety.
1. NAIGAM NAYA, purpose-based viewpoint: In this viewpoint, the purpose of the activity is taken to represent the entire activity. For example, when a person who is carrying golf clubs is questioned "What are you doing?", he answers, "I am playing golf." In another instance, when we ask a person carrying groceries to the kitchen "What are you doing?", he may reply, "I am cooking meals." The person carrying golf clubs is not actually playing golf but he is involved in an activity whose ultimate goal is playing golf. Similarly, the person carrying groceries is actually not cooking but carrying groceries is part of a series of activities that lead to cooking. This is purpose-based viewpoint.
2. SAMGRAH NAYA, class-based viewpoint: In this viewpoint, several things which are essentially similar and which are not incompatible are considered together. Thus class-based viewpoint considers an entire class or group. For example, the word 'citizen' is used for all men and women living in a country without any regard to their gender, color, ethnicity, employment, etc. Similarly, the word 'entity' refers to living as well as non-living entities. Such descriptions are objects of class-based viewpoint.
3. VYAVAHAAR NAYA, analytic viewpoint: This viewpoint examines a certain object or situation based on conventional (popular) ideas. In the above example, classifying the citizens such as doctors, lawyers, businessmen, engineers and teachers separately, is the object of analytic viewpoint. In the case of entities, the analytic viewpoint may consider living and non-living entities separately.
4. RIJUSUTRA NAYA, the viewpoint of momentariness: This viewpoint focuses only on the present state or form of the object. All things in the universe undergo transformations continuously. The first three viewpoints do not focus on these transformations. However, the viewpoint of momentariness recognizes the fact that transformations occur in the object, but it considers only the state of the object that exists at the present time. For example, a gold coin was turned into a ring from which a necklace can be made later. The viewpoint of momentariness will consider the present mode only, that is, of the ring.
5. SHABD NAYA, the viewpoint of terminology: This viewpoint differentiates between terms and names on the basis of their meanings. The words 'INDRA', 'SHAKRA' and 'PURANDAR', which are used to describe the lord of heavenly beings, present an example of the viewpoint of terminology.
6. SAMABHIROODH NAYA, the viewpoint of derivatives: This viewpoint differentiates between terms based on their roots. As the name implies, this viewpoint examines the various terms according to their roots. In the above example of the lord of heavenly beings, the viewpoint of derivatives distinguishes between the meanings of 'INDRA', 'SHAKRA' and 'PURANDAR'; 'INDRA' means prosperous, 'SHAKRA' means powerful and 'PURANDAR' means destroyer of enemies.
7. EVAMBHOOT NAYA, the viewpoint of manifestation: Based on this viewpoint, a person (or an object) is considered to be what the name (term) implies only when he (it) is functioning according to the exact meaning of the term. Thus the lord of heavenly beings is called 'PURANDAR' only when he is destroying his enemies and a doctor is called a surgeon only when he is operating on a patient.
Obviously, the seven viewpoints are employed to gradually obtain detailed information on the object under examination. The first four are called import-related viewpoints (ARTH NAYAs) because they deal with the object of knowledge, while the last three, word-related viewpoints (SHABD NAYAs) because they pertain to terms and their meanings. The seven viewpoints are also grouped in a different manner. The first three are entity-based (DRAVYAARTHIK) viewpoints as they focus on the substantive aspect, while the last four are transformation-based (PARYAAYAARTHIK) viewpoints because they deal with modifications.
Footnotes:
1. Based on the following commentaries on TATTVAARTH SUTRA:
TATTVAARTH SUTRA by Acharya Umaswati, commentary by Pandit Sukh Lal Sanghvi, English translation by K. K. Dixit, published by L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1974.
TATTVAARTH SUTRA by Acharya Umaswati, commentary by Pandit Phool Chandra Siddhantacharya, published by Varni Granthmala, Varanasi, 1949.
TATTVAARTH SUTRA by Acharya Umaswati, commentary by Pandit Mohan Lal Shastri, published by Saral Jain Granth Bhandar, Jabalpur, 1983.
Reality, English translation of Acharya Pujya Pad's SARVAARTHASIDDHI by S. A. Jain, published by Vir Sasana Sangha, Calcutta, 1960.
2. The word SUTRA means aphorism - a short sentence stating a general truth. Prayers and scriptures containing SUTRAs as well are called SUTRAs.
3. A discussion of the stages of spiritual development is given in Studies In Jainism: Reader 2, pages 60-64.
4. SATTHAM NAANAM NA HAVAI JAMHA SATTHAM NA YAANAE KIMCHI |
TAMHA ANNAM NAANAM ANNAM SATTHAM JINA VINTI || 390 ||
5. This discussion has been adopted from the article 'Jain Logic: Processing Information Into Knowledge' by Dr. Chandrakant P. Shah, Jain Study Circular, July 1998, pages 9-15.