Quotations From Scriptures:
Introduction
Acharya Umaswati's TATTVAARTH SUTRA(2) is a systematic and comprehensive presentation of the principles of Jainism. As the name implies, it is a brief treatise on TATTVAs - aspects of reality, which include living beings (JEEVs), non-living entities (AJEEVs), influx of karmic matter (AASHRAV), binding of karmic matter (BANDH), stoppage of karmic influx (SAMVAR), shedding of karmic matter (NIRJARA) and liberation (salvation MOKSHA). In the process of discussing these aspects of reality, Acharya Umaswati presents the theory of karma and path to salvation.
Acharya Umaswati lived around the second century A.D. Thus TATTVAARTH SUTRA is one of the oldest Jain scriptures. Although minor variations exist in the text of this scripture accepted by the Digambar and Shwetambar traditions, the essential philosophy presented in the two versions of the text is almost identical. Thus it is accepted by all Jain traditions.
Acharya Umaswati composed TATTVAARTH SUTRA in very concise and precise Sanskrit. It has ten chapters. The first chapter, presented below, describes the path to salvation, which entails rational perception, rational knowledge and rational conduct. Rational perception is defined as belief in the seven aspects of reality, and rational knowledge, the knowledge of the aspects of reality. Some details about types of knowledge are also presented in this chapter. The concepts presented are highly profound and sophisticated.
Path to salvation:
SAMYAK-DARSHAN-JNAAN-CHAARITRAANI MOKSHAMAARGAH |1-1|
Rational perception (SAMYAK DARSHAN), rational knowledge (SAMYAK JNAAN) and rational conduct (SAMYAK CHAARITRA) together constitute the path to salvation.
According to Jainism, a worldly soul goes through the cycles of birth and death on account of its association with karmic matter. This is the root cause of unhappiness. Salvation entails freedom from the bondage of karma, which is achieved through rationalism (SAMYAKTVA). When the mantle of karmic matter is shed by a worldly soul, it attains its pristine state. All feelings of pleasure and pain, happiness and unhappiness vanish, and the soul enjoys its intrinsic attributes that include absolute perception, knowledge and bliss.
Some religions emphasize faith, devotion, knowledge or ethical conduct as means of spiritual progress. Jainism, on the other hand, teaches that the first step towards spiritualism consists of proper cognizance rather than blind faith. Conduct devoid of proper knowledge is of no avail. Proper cognizance results from an open-minded and unbiased observation and study. This is the process of attaining rational perception and knowledge that leads to rational conduct. Arya Shayyambhava, in DASHAVAIKAALIK SUTRA, describes the importance of rational knowledge as follows:
PADHAMAM NAANAM TAO DAYA EVAM CHITTHAI SAVVA SANJAYE
ANNANI KIM KAAHI KIM VA NAAHIEI CHHEYA PAAVAGAM
A person who has complete self-control first acquires knowledge and then has compassion. A person without knowledge indulges in actions but what does he know about shedding demeritorious karma (PAAP)?
Thus, according to Jainism, belief, knowledge and conduct severally do not lead to salvation. First, an individual, in pursuit of spiritualism, has to adopt rational perception and knowledge, and then practice ethical conduct.
Definition of rational perception:
TATTVAARTH-SHRADDHAANAM SAMYAK-DARSHANAM |1-2|
Belief in reality, that is, substances ascertained as they are, is rational perception.
The Sanskrit words 'SAMYAK' and 'DARSHAN' literally mean rational and perception, respectively. Thus SAMYAK DARSHAN essentially entails an inclination, attitude or frame of mind which is free from any predisposition or preconceived notions. The Sanskrit word TATTVAARTH means nature of substances - their intrinsic attributes. Thus it implies reality - the real nature of things.
It should be remarked that a worldly soul, on account of the mantle of karmic matter, is limited in its capacity to comprehend the nature of reality. Consequently, we cannot achieve transcendent rational perception. We can only observe and study aspects of reality with an open and unbiased mind, and then form our own beliefs. This implies that rational perception of an individual evolves as one advances on the path to spiritualism and becomes absolute perception when a soul sheds all karmic matter.
Causes of rational perception:
TANNISARGADADHIGAMADVA |1-3|
Rational perception is achieved through intuition or through acquisition of reasoned knowledge (ADHIGAM).
A worldly soul does not possess rational perception because of its association with perception-deluding karma. Thus a worldly soul has to effect subsidence (UPASHAM), subsidence-cum-destruction (KSHAYOPASHAM) or destruction (KSHAYA) of karmic matter to attain rational perception. Karmic matter is like sediment suspended in water through which one cannot see clearly. If the sediment settles to the bottom, one can see through the water. This is subsidence of karmic particles. Shedding of karmic particles is like complete removal of sediment from the dirty water, and subsidence-cum-destruction is the removal of karmic particles that were going to come to fruition at the present moment and subsidence of karmic particles that will come to fruition in the future. Subsidence, subsidence-cum-destruction or destruction of karmic matter can occur through intuition or through acquisition of knowledge. Intuition is a natural process that can be aroused by circumstances (pseudo-karmas) and by feelings of success, failure, pain, etc. Reasoned knowledge is acquired through self-study, religious discourses and meditation.
The seven aspects of reality :
JEEV-AJEEVA-ASRAVA-BANDH-SAMVAR-NIRJARA MOKSHAASTATTVAM |1-4|
The seven aspects of reality (TATTVAs) are:
Souls (JEEV)
Inanimate entities (AJEEV)
Influx of karmic matter towards a soul (AASHRAV)
Bondage of karmic matter to a soul (BANDH)
Stoppage of influx of karmic matter (SAMVAR)
Shedding of karmic matter (NIRJARA)
Liberation of soul from karmic bondage (MOKSHA)
Some scriptures present nine aspects of reality (fundamentals) including merit (PUNYA) and demerit (PAAP). Acharya Umaswati and some other scholars include merit and demerit in influx and bondage of karma.
This aphorism (SUTRA) represents the sum and substance of Jain metaphysics. It states that there are two kinds of entities in the universe - living and non-living. Further, the interactions between these two entities take place according to the laws of nature - directed by their respective intrinsic attributes, and without the interference of any supernatural entity. In fact, there is no supernatural entity according to the Jain concept of reality. Influx and bondage of karmic particles, and stoppage of influx and shedding of karmas constitute the interactions between the living and non-living entities. Finally, salvation results from stoppage of influx and complete shedding of karmic matter.
Differentiation of the aspects of reality :
NAAM-STHAAPANA-DRAVYA-BHAAV-TASTANNYAASAH |1-5|
These aspects of reality are positioned, differentiated and classified through denomination, representation, substance and characteristic.
An aspect of reality is examined and differentiated by studying its denomination (NAAM), representation (STHAAPANA), substance (DRAVYA), and characteristic (BHAAV). Denomination, representation, substance and characteristic are called NYAAS or NIKSHEP (premise). For example, a child is given a name such as Chandra (moon), which is only a denomination and has nothing to do with moon. A marble statue of
TEERTHANKAR Mahaveer, who was VEETARAAG - beyond attachment and aversion, is a representation of Bhagwaan Mahaveer's qualities. A person, who performed surgery in the past or who will perform surgery in the future, is called a surgeon. This is substance premise. Finally, calling a person surgeon when he is actually performing surgery is characteristic premise.
Means to achieve reasoned knowledge of the aspects of reality :
PRAMAAN-NAYAYAIRADHIGAMAH |1-6|
Reasoned knowledge (ADHIGAM) of the aspects of reality is acquired through experimentation (PRAMAAN) and logical thinking (NAYA). Experimentation means information and evidence obtained through the study of scriptures, observation of nature and experience.
As stated above, a cause of rational perception can be reasoned knowledge,which is acquired through logical study, observation and thinking. By learning the scriptures and other fields of study without any prejudice, an individual can form a logical concept of the surrounding universe.
Some Jain scriptures state that rational knowledge precedes rational perception, while some scriptures state that as soon as an individual attains rational perception, his/her knowledge becomes rational knowledge. UTTARAADHYAYAN SUTRA says:
NAADANSANISSA NAANAM NAANEN VINA NA HUNTI CHAARANAGUNA
AGUNISSA NATTHI MOKKHO NATTHI AMOKKHASSA NIVVAANAM
Knowledge is not rational without rational perception;
no rational conduct is possible without rational knowledge;
there is no liberation without rational conduct,
and there is no NIRVANA without liberation.
Essentially, whether rational knowledge precedes rational perception or vice versa is a matter of semantics. The fact is that the process of acquiring rational perception and knowledge consists of experimentation and logical thinking as described above.
Exposition of the details of the aspects of reality :
NIRDESH-SWAAMITVA-SAADHANAADHIKARAN-STHITI-VIDHAANATAH |1-7|
Understanding an entity or concept entails the consideration of its description (or mention, NIRDESH), ownership (SWAAMITVA), cause (SAADHAN), substratum (ADHIKARAN), duration (STHITI) and classification (VIDHAAN).
A detailed study of an aspect of reality needs to be conducted by a variety of means of exposition (ANUYOGAs) such as mention, ownership, cause and place. For example, let us consider rational perception. It is defined as belief in aspects of reality (description or mention). Only living beings as opposed to inanimate entities can possess rational perception (ownership). It is attained through subsidence, subsidence-cum-destruction or destruction of karmic matter (internal cause) and through intuition or acquisition of reasoned knowledge (external cause). Its substratum is soul. If it is attained through destruction of karmas, its duration is infinite in case of spiritually advanced souls but finite in other instances. Rational perception can be classified in a variety of ways. Considering its causes, it can be destruction-based, subsidence-based or subsidence-cum-destruction-based. Considering the ownership and degrees, it has infinite varieties, and so on and so forth.
Description of the details of the aspects of reality :
SAT-SAMKHYA-KSHETRA-SPARSHAN-KAALAANTAR-BHAAVAALP-
BAHUTVAISHCHA |1-8|
It also entails knowing its existence (SAT), number (SAMKHYA), extent (KSHETRA), domain (SPARSHAN), time (KAAL), interval (ANTAR), character (BHAAV) and comparison (ALPABAHUTVA).
Details of an aspect of reality are elucidated by a variety of means of description (PRAROOPANAAs) such as existence, number, extent, domain and time. It should be noted that ANUYOGAs and PRAROOPANAAs are essentially similar for exploring reality. Let us consider the example of rational perception. It is an intrinsic attribute of soul. Thus it exists in all souls. A worldly soul unveils it through self-endeavor.
Considering the liberated souls, the number of rational souls is infinite, while the rational souls among the worldly beings is finite. Rational souls are found in an extremely tiny extent of the universe. An active omniscient (SAYOG KEVALI) can perceive the entire universe, while other rational beings have a limited domain of perception. Considering individual souls, the time of attainment of rational perception is varied (transient or continuous), and considering all souls, it is continuous. In the case of an individual, there are varied intervals in his/her attainment of rational perception at different times. Considering all worldly beings, there is no interval in attaining rational perception. Every moment some worldly being attains rational perception. The character of rational perception is determined by the karmic processes - subsidence, subsidence-cum-destruction and destruction. Rational perception arising from subsidence-cum-destruction is superior to that achieved through subsidence, while rational perception attained through destruction of karmic matter is supreme. For comparison, the number of souls having destruction-based rational perception is maximum, while those having subsidence-based rational perception are fewest.
Five kinds of knowledge:
MATI-SHRUT-AVADHI-MANAAHPARYAYA-KEVALAANI JNAANAM |1-9|
Kinds of knowledge are:
Sensory cognition (MATI JNAAN) -- knowledge acquired through the five senses and mind (the faculty of thinking)
Literal knowledge (SHRUT JNAAN) -- knowledge derived through signs, symbols, letters and words, including association, comprehension, inference, etc.
Extraordinary knowledge (clairvoyance, AVADHI JNAAN) -- a limited ability to perceive objects and events in distant places and/or times
Mental knowledge (telepathy, MANAHAPARYAYA JNAAN) -- ability to decipher the mental states of others without the use of senses
Absolute knowledge (omniscience, KEVAL JNAAN) -- knowledge of absolute truth acquired by eliminating four soul-influencing karmas, viz., perception-obscuring karma, knowledge-obscuring karma, deluding karma and obstructing karma
It should be noted that sensory cognition precedes literal knowledge. Further, cognition accompanied by rational perception is rational knowledge. In fact, the knowledge that an individual possesses becomes rational knowledge as soon he/she attains rational perception.
Discussion of experimentation (PRAMAAN):
TATPRAMAANE |1-10|
AADYE PAROKSHAM |1-11|
PRATYAKSHAMANYAT |1-12|
Knowledge is experimentation. In other words, knowledge is information and evidence obtained through indirect and direct sources (experimentation).
The first two -- sensory knowledge and literal knowledge -- depend on sources external to the soul. They are acquired through senses and mind. Thus these constitute indirect knowledge.
The remaining three kinds of knowledge -- extraordinary knowledge, mental knowledge and absolute knowledge -- are acquired directly by the soul without operation of the senses. They arise in the soul when there is destruction-cum-subsidence or destruction of karma. Thus they constitute direct knowledge.
It should be pointed out that sometimes one gets a false, inaccurate or unsound impression through one's senses. Thus, evidently, sensory knowledge and literal knowledge are indirect.
Synonyms of sensory cognition:
MATIH SMRITIH SAMJNA CHINTAABHINIBODH ITYANARTHAANTARAM |1-13|
Sensory cognition (MATI JNAAN) includes recollection (SMRITI), recognition (SANJNA), induction (CHINTA) and deduction (ABHINIBODH).
Sensory cognition,including recollection, recognition, induction and deduction, results from the subsidence-cum-destruction of sensory-knowledge-obscuring karma. Thus recollection, recognition, induction and deduction are synonymous with sensory cognition. Nevertheless, their definitions are different. Recollection implies recalling a thing or concept that was perceived in the past. Recognition entails observing a thing and identifying it based on past experience such as 'this is the same shirt that my father had gifted'. Induction entails logical generalization on the basis of particular facts or individual cases, such as wherever there is smoke, there is fire. Deduction involves reasoning from a premise to a logical conclusion, such as deducing existence of fire by observing billowing smoke.
To be continued in future issues
Footnotes:
1. Based on the following commentaries on TATTVAARTH SUTRA: TATTVAARTH SUTRA by Acharya Umaswati, commentary by Pandit Sukh Lal Sanghvi, English translation by K. K. Dixit, published by L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1974.
TATTVAARTH SUTRA by Acharya Umaswati, commentary by Pandit Phool Chandra Siddhantacharya, published by Varni Granthmala, Varanasi, 1949.
Reality, English translation of Acharya Pujya Pad's SARVARRTHASIDDHI by S. A. Jain, published by Vir Sasana Sangha, Calcutta, 1960.
In this context, the readers are also encouraged to see 'Jainism: A Rational Religion', included in Studies In Jainism: Reader 2.
2. The word SUTRA means aphorism -- a short sentence stating a general truth. Prayers and scriptures containing SUTRAs as well are called SUTRAs.